Buddhism and Jainism: Origins, Teachings, Sects, and Historical Impact

Introduction

The 6^th century BCE was a watershed period in ancient Indian history. Marked by rapid socio-economic transformations, the expansion of agriculture in the Gangetic Plains, and the growth of urban centers (Second Urbanization), this era witnessed a profound intellectual and religious revolt against the rigid, costly, and priest-dominated Later Vedic ritualism.

Out of nearly 62 heterodox sects (Sramana traditions) that emerged during this period, Buddhism and Jainism became the most influential philosophical and religious movements, offering egalitarian alternatives to the established Varna hierarchy.

1. Causes for the Rise of Buddhism and Jainism

1. Rigidity of the Varna System: The Later Vedic Varna hierarchy restricted social mobility and relegated Shudras and lower groups to subjugation.
2. Reaction Against Sacrifices (Yajnas): Elaborate rituals and widespread animal sacrifices (Pashubali) severely harmed the emerging agrarian economy, which depended heavily on cattle for plowing.
3. Emergence of the Merchant Class (Vaishyas): The growth of trade, urbanization, and coinage boosted the economic power of Vaishyas. However, Brahmanical texts lowered their social standing and condemned usury (lending money on interest). Vaishyas turned to Buddhism and Jainism, which granted them equal social respect and promoted non-violence (Ahimsa).
4. Use of Vernacular Languages: Unlike Vedic scriptures composed in complex Sanskrit accessible only to Brahmans, Buddha and Mahavira preached in common folk languages—Prakrit (Jainism) and Pali (Buddhism).

2. Buddhism: Life of Buddha and Core Doctrines

A. Life of Gautama Buddha

• Birth: Born as Siddhartha in c. 563 BCE at Lumbini (near Kapilavastu, Nepal) in the Shakya Kshatriya clan. His father was Suddhodana and mother was Mayadevi (raised by stepmother Gautami Prajapati).
• The Four Great Sights: An old man, a sick man, a dead body, and an ascetic. These sights moved him to renounce worldly life at age 29 (Mahabhinishkramana).
• Enlightenment (Nirvana): Achieved supreme enlightenment at age 35 under a Peepal tree (Bodhi Tree) on the banks of the Niranjana river at Uruvela (Bodh Gaya). He became known as Buddha (“The Awakened One”) or Tathagata.
• First Sermon (Dhammacakkappavattana): Delivered his first sermon to his five former companions at the Deer Park in Sarnath (near Varanasi).
• Death (Mahaparinirvana): Attained Mahaparinirvana at age 80 (c. 483 BCE) at Kushinagar (Uttar Pradesh), the capital of the Malla republic.

B. Core Doctrines of Buddhism

1. The Four Noble Truths (Chatvari Arya Satyani)

1. Dukkha: Life is full of suffering.
2. Dukkha Samudaya: Suffering has a cause (Desire / Trishna).
3. Dukkha Nirodha: Suffering can be eliminated by removing desire.
4. Dukkha Nirodha Gamini Pratipat: The path to end suffering is the Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga).

2. The Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)

The Eightfold Path represents the Middle Path (Madhyama Pratipada), avoiding both extreme luxury and extreme self-mortification:

• Right View, Right Resolve, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.

3. Key Philosophical Principles

• Pratityasamutpada: Doctrine of Dependent Origination (“When this exists, that comes to be”).
• Anicca (Impermanence): Everything in the universe is in a constant state of flux.
• Anatta (Non-Self): Rejection of the permanent, immortal soul (Atman).
• Three Jewels (Tri-ratna): Buddha (The Teacher), Dhamma (The Doctrine), and Sangha (The Order of Monks).

3. The Four Buddhist Councils

Council	Year & Location	Patron King	President	Key Outcome / Text Compiled
1st Council	483 BCE Rajagriha (Sattapani Cave)	Ajatashatru (Haryanka Dynasty)	Mahakassapa	Compilation of Sutta Pitaka (Ananda) and Vinaya Pitaka (Upali).
2nd Council	383 BCE Vaishali	Kalasoka (Shishunaga Dynasty)	Sabakami	First schism into two groups: Sthaviravadins (Theravada) and Mahasanghikas.
3rd Council	250 BCE Pataliputra	Ashoka (Mauryan Dynasty)	Moggaliputta Tissa	Compilation of Abhidhamma Pitaka; decision to send Buddhist missionaries abroad.
4th Council	72 CE Kundalavana (Kashmir)	Kanishka (Kushan Dynasty)	Vasumitra (Vice: Asvaghosa)	Final division into Hinayana and Mahayana sects; commentaries written in Sanskrit.

Major Schools of Buddhism

• Hinayana (“Lesser Vehicle”): Orthodox, traditionalists. Believed Buddha was a human teacher. Emphasized self-salvation through individual monastic effort (Arhat ideal). Used Pali.
• Mahayana (“Greater Vehicle”): Idol worship of Buddha treated as a divine God. Emphasized the Bodhisattva ideal (compassionate beings who delay their own salvation to help others). Used Sanskrit.
• Vajrayana (“Diamond Vehicle”): Emerged around the 8^th century CE; incorporated esoteric rituals, mantras, and tantric magic (popular in Bengal, Bihar, and Tibet).

4. Jainism: Tirthankaras, Mahavira, and Philosophy

A. The Tirthankaras and Vardhamana Mahavira

Jainism believes in 24 spiritual teachers called Tirthankaras (“Ford-makers” who cross the river of rebirth):

• 1^st Tirthankara: Rishabhanatha (or Adinatha; symbol: Bull). Mentioned in the Rigveda.
• 23^rd Tirthankara: Parshvanatha (symbol: Serpent). Introduced four vows (Chaturyama): Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Aparigraha.
• 24^th Tirthankara: Vardhamana Mahavira (symbol: Lion). Added the 5^th vow (Brahmacharya).

• Life: Born at Kundagrama near Vaishali in c. 540 BCE in the Jnatrika Kshatriya clan. Father was Siddhartha and mother was Trishala.
• Enlightenment (Kevalajnana): Attained supreme knowledge under a Sal tree on the banks of the Rujupalika river near Jrimbhikagrama at age 42. He was named Jina (Conqueror) and Mahavira (Great Hero).
• Moksha: Attained liberation at age 72 (c. 468 BCE) at Pavapuri near Rajgir.

B. Core Doctrines and Vows of Jainism

1. Five Great Vows (Pancha Mahavratas)

1. Ahimsa: Non-violence (absolute avoidance of harm to any living entity).
2. Satya: Truthfulness.
3. Asteya: Non-stealing.
4. Aparigraha: Non-possession / Non-attachment.
5. Brahmacharya: Celibacy (added by Mahavira).

2. Three Jewels (Tri-ratna)

• Samyak Darshana (Right Faith)
• Samyak Jnana (Right Knowledge)
• Samyak Charitra (Right Conduct)

3. Epistemology: Anekantavada and Syadvada

• Anekantavada: The doctrine of “many-sidedness” or pluralism—truth and reality are complex and have multiple aspects.
• Syadvada: The theory of “conditioned predication” or relativity—every judgment is only relatively true (“Syaad” = Perhaps).

C. Jain Councils and Major Sects

A severe famine in Magadha led to the migration of Bhadrabahu and his followers to South India (Sravanabelagola), while Sthulabhadra stayed in Magadha. This caused a permanent schism:

• 1^st Jain Council (300 BCE): Held at Pataliputra, presided over by Sthulabhadra. Compiled 12 Angas.
• 2^nd Jain Council (512 CE): Held at Vallabhi (Gujarat), presided over by Devardhi Kshamasramana. Final written compilation of Jain canonical texts (Agamas).

5. Comparative Analysis: Buddhism vs. Jainism

Parameter	Buddhism	Jainism
Founder / Reformer	Gautama Buddha	Vardhamana Mahavira (24th Tirthankara)
Concept of Soul (Atman)	Denies the existence of a permanent soul (Anatta)	Believes every entity (even inanimate objects) has a soul (Jiva)
Attitude to Ahimsa	Moderate non-violence; practical Middle Path	Extreme non-violence; forbids agriculture to protect soil organisms
Concept of God	Agnostic/Silent on God’s existence	Rejects God as creator; places Tirthankaras above God
Language Used	Pali (Popular folk language)	Prakrit / Ardhamagadhi
Penance / Austerity	Rejects extreme penance; advocates Middle Path	Strongly emphasizes severe asceticism and penance (Santhara/Sallekhana)
Royal Patronage	Ashoka, Kanishka, Harsha, Pala Rulers	Bimbisara, Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela
Geographical Spread	Spread across East and Southeast Asia	Remained largely confined within India

Quick Examination Facts

Feature / Term	Key Exam Fact
Buddha’s Birthplace	Lumbini (Nepal)
Buddha’s First Sermon Event	Dhammacakkappavattana (Sarnath)
Buddha’s Death Event	Mahaparinirvana (Kushinagar)
Three Jewels of Buddhism	Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha
First Buddhist Council Patron	Ajatashatru (Rajagriha, 483 BCE)
Fourth Buddhist Council Patron	Kanishka (Kashmir, 72 CE)
First Jain Tirthankara	Rishabhanatha (Adinatha)
23rd Jain Tirthankara	Parshvanatha (Symbol: Serpent)
5th Vow added by Mahavira	Brahmacharya (Celibacy)
Mahavira’s Place of Death	Pavapuri (Bihar)
Jain Doctrine of Many-Sidedness	Anekantavada
Language of Early Buddhist Canon	Pali (Sutta, Vinaya, Abhidhamma Pitakas)
Language of Early Jain Texts	Prakrit / Ardhamagadhi
Svetambara Leader	Sthulabhadra
Digambara Leader	Bhadrabahu

Conclusion

Buddhism and Jainism fundamentally reshaped the religious, social, and cultural contours of ancient India. By challenging the Varna order, rejecting hereditary ritual privileges, and adopting popular spoken languages, both traditions democratized spiritual access. Buddhism grew into a major global religion under imperial patronage, while Jainism retained its uncompromising commitment to ethical living and Ahimsa. Their principles of non-violence, rationality, and tolerance remain central pillars of Indian philosophy.

Some Important Links
Download “Buddhism and Jainism” PDF	Click Here