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MATHS

Percentage

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Basic Concept

  • Value expressed as a fraction of 100.
  • Formula: ValueTotal × 100
  • Base for Profit, Loss, and SI-CI.
  • Essential for data interpretation.
  • Used to compare unequal scales.
MATHS

Profit & Loss

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Key Formulas

  • Profit occurs when SP > CP.
  • Loss occurs when CP > SP.
  • Profit % = ProfitCP × 100
  • Discount is calculated on MP.
  • Vital for business arithmetic.
MATHS

Ratio & Proportion

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Comparison

  • Compares two quantities by division.
  • Simplest form is written as a:b.
  • Proportion: ab = cd (ad=bc).
  • Used in partnership problems.
  • Handles mixtures and allegations.
MATHS

Average

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Mean Value

  • Central value of a data group.
  • Formula: Sum of TermsNo. of Terms
  • Distributes total value equally.
  • Also called the Arithmetic Mean.
  • Used to find overall performance.
REASONING

Syllogism

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Logical Logic

  • Deduction based on premises.
  • Uses 'All', 'Some', or 'No'.
  • Venn Diagrams are best for solving.
  • Checks validity of conclusions.
  • Tests pure analytical thinking.
REASONING

Blood Relations

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Family Tree

  • Mapping links between members.
  • Use generations-based charts.
  • +/- signs for Male and Female.
  • Always start from 'Self' or 'Me'.
  • Solves complex family puzzles.
REASONING

Coding-Decoding

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Patterns

  • Words hidden using specific rules.
  • Identify letter shifts (+n/-n).
  • Opposite pairs (A-Z, B-Y, etc.).
  • Learn letter ranks (E-J-O-T-Y).
  • Tests logic identification speed.
REASONING

Number Series

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Sequences

  • Finding logic in a list of numbers.
  • Check Square, Cube, or Primes.
  • Difference or Double Difference.
  • Identify the wrong/missing term.
  • Tests numerical observation skills.
ENGLISH

Tenses

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Time Frames

  • Shows when an action happens.
  • 3 Types: Past, Present, Future.
    1. Simple
    2. Continuous
    3. Perfect
    4. Perfect Continuous
  • Changes based on the timeline.
  • Skeleton of sentence structure.
ENGLISH

Active-Passive

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Voice Change

  • Active: Subject performs action.
  • Passive: Focus is on the object.
  • V3 (Past Participle) is mandatory.
  • 'By' is used before the doer.
  • Essential for formal writing.
ENGLISH

Subject-Verb

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Agreement

  • Subject/Verb must match in count.
  • Singular Subject = Singular Verb.
  • Plural Subject = Plural Verb.
  • Core rule for error detection.
  • Prevents grammatical confusion.
ENGLISH

Idioms

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Phrases

  • Meaning is never literal.
  • Metaphorical way to speak.
  • 'Bite the bullet' (Face pain).
  • 'Cold shoulder' (Ignore).
  • Makes language more expressive.
HISTORY

Indus Valley

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Ancient India

  • First urban civilization in India.
  • Famous for grid-system streets.
  • Burnt bricks & drainage systems.
  • Sites: Harappa & Mohenjo-daro.
  • Known for overseas trade links.
HISTORY

Mauryan Empire

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Dynasty

  • First pan-India major empire.
  • Founded by Chandragupta Maurya.
  • Chanakya was the prime mentor.
  • Ashoka promoted Dhamma & Peace.
  • Known for Rock & Pillar Edicts.
HISTORY

Mughal Empire

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Medieval Era

  • Started by Babur in 1526 AD.
  • Akbar established central rule.
  • Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal.
  • Mansabdari system introduced.
  • Blend of Persian & Indian art.
HISTORY

Freedom Struggle

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Modern India

  • 1857: First war against British.
  • Gandhi led non-violent path.
  • 1942: Quit India Movement.
  • Freedom on 15th August 1947.
  • Based on millions of sacrifices.
GEOGRAPHY

Solar System

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The Cosmos

  • Sun is the center of gravity.
  • 8 planets and many dwarf ones.
  • Venus is the hottest planet.
  • Jupiter is the largest giant.
  • Mars is the famous Red Planet.
GEOGRAPHY

Atmosphere

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Air Layers

  • Troposphere: All weather lives.
  • Stratosphere: Ozone layer sits.
  • Mesosphere: Coldest layer.
  • Ionosphere: Reflects radio signals.
  • Protects from solar radiation.
GEOGRAPHY

Indian Rivers

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Waterways

  • Ganga is the longest (2525km).
  • Himalayan rivers flow always.
  • Peninsular rivers are seasonal.
  • Brahmaputra brings max volume.
  • Godavari: The 'Dakshin Ganga'.
GEOGRAPHY

Earth Interior

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Structure

  • Crust: Solid outer rocky shell.
  • Mantle: Largest semi-solid part.
  • Core: Made of Nickel & Iron.
  • Magnetic field starts in core.
  • Tectonic plates float on mantle.
POLITY

Preamble

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Identity Card

  • Soul of the Indian Constitution.
  • Sovereign, Socialist, Secular.
  • Based on Objective Resolution.
  • Justice, Liberty, and Equality.
  • Summary of the entire document.
POLITY

Fundamental Rights

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Part III

  • Articles 12 to 35 defined.
  • Legally enforceable in courts.
  • Art 32: Constitutional Remedy.
  • Protects citizen's freedoms.
  • Borrowed from US Constitution.
POLITY

The President

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Executive Head

  • First Citizen of India.
  • Supreme Commander of Forces.
  • Art 72: Power to grant pardon.
  • Nominal head, acts on advice.
  • Appoints PM and Union Ministers.
POLITY

Panchayati Raj

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Local Govt

  • 73rd Amendment Act, 1992.
  • 3-Tier: Gram, Block, District.
  • Grassroots level democracy.
  • Ensures social justice locally.
  • States must conduct elections.
ECONOMICS

GDP

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Definition

  • Market value of all final goods.
  • Measured inside country borders.
  • Indicators of economic growth.
  • Real GDP accounts for inflation.
  • Calculated by NSO in India.
ECONOMICS

Inflation

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Price Rise

  • General increase in prices.
  • Loss of currency value.
  • Measured by CPI and WPI.
  • RBI target is usually 4% +/- 2%.
  • Hurt savings but helps growth.
ECONOMICS

The RBI

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Central Bank

  • Founded on 1st April, 1935.
  • Banker to the Govt of India.
  • Issues currency notes (Rs 2-2000).
  • Regulates all commercial banks.
  • Manages India's Forex reserves.
ECONOMICS

NITI Aayog

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Think Tank

  • Formed on 1st January, 2015.
  • Replaced Planning Commission.
  • Follows a Bottom-Up approach.
  • PM is the Ex-officio Chairman.
  • Promotes Cooperative Federalism.
ENVIRONMENT

Biodiversity

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Ecology

  • Total variety of life forms.
  • Essential for food security.
  • Maintains oxygen & water cycle.
  • Threatened by climate change.
  • India has 4 global hotspots.
ENVIRONMENT

Food Chain

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Energy Flow

  • Linear flow of who eats whom.
  • Producers are always plants.
  • Decomposers clean up waste.
  • 10% energy law applies here.
  • Web of many chains = Food Web.
ENVIRONMENT

Ozone Layer

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Shielding

  • Found in the Stratosphere.
  • Filters harmful UV radiation.
  • Montreal Protocol protects it.
  • Damaged by CFC and Halons.
  • Prevents cancer and cataracts.
ENVIRONMENT

Climate Change

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Global Crisis

  • Driven by greenhouse gases.
  • Melts glaciers and polar ice.
  • Causes extreme weather events.
  • Paris Agreement sets targets.
  • Needs shifting to solar/wind.
SCIENCE

Photo-synthesis

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Plant Life

  • Sunlight to chemical energy.
  • Occurs in Chloroplasts.
  • 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
  • Requires green Chlorophyll.
  • Basis for all life on Earth.
SCIENCE

Newton's 2nd Law

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Physics Law

  • Formula: Force = Mass × Acceleration
  • Explains how objects move.
  • Force unit is the Newton (N).
  • Mass remains constant always.
  • Foundational to engineering.
SCIENCE

Mitochondria

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Cell Unit

  • Powerhouse of the living cell.
  • Creates energy in ATP form.
  • Has its own circular DNA.
  • Performs aerobic respiration.
  • Found in animals and plants.
SCIENCE

Chemical Bonds

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Chemistry

  • Ionic: Giving away electrons.
  • Covalent: Sharing electrons.
  • Holds atoms together in matter.
  • Releases/Absorbs energy.
  • Determines boiling points.
STATIC GK

National Parks

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Wild Reserves

  • Jim Corbett is the oldest.
  • Kaziranga: One-horned Rhino.
  • Gir: Only home of Asiatic Lion.
  • Hemis is the largest park.
  • Protects India's biodiversity.
STATIC GK

Classical Dance

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Cultures

  • 8 major styles recognized.
  • Bharatnatyam: Tamil Nadu.
  • Kathak: Northern Indian.
  • Sattriya: Assam's heritage.
  • Tells stories through mudras.
STATIC GK

UNESCO Sites

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Heritage

  • India has over 40+ sites.
  • Includes Taj Mahal & Hampi.
  • Mix of Natural and Cultural.
  • Protects global history gems.
  • Managed by a UN body.
STATIC GK

Important Days

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Key Events

  • June 5: World Environment Day.
  • June 21: International Yoga Day.
  • April 22: Earth Day awareness.
  • Dec 10: Human Rights Day.
  • Focuses on global awareness.
MATHS

Simple Interest

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Basic Interest

  • Interest calculated only on principal.
  • Formula: SI = P × R × T100
  • P=Principal, R=Rate, T=Time.
  • Amount = Principal + Interest.
  • Growth remains constant every year.
MATHS

Time & Work

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Efficiency

  • Work done is Efficiency × Time.
  • If A does work in 'x' days,
  • Work in 1 day = 1x
  • Total work is always taken as 1.
  • More people lead to less time taken.
MATHS

Compound Interest

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Interest on Interest

  • Interest added to the principal amount.
  • Formula: A = P(1 + R100)n
  • 'n' represents number of years.
  • CI = Amount (A) - Principal (P).
  • Grows faster than Simple Interest.
MATHS

Speed & Distance

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Motion Math

  • Formula: Speed = DistanceTime
  • 1 km/h = 518 m/s.
  • Average Speed = Total DistanceTotal Time
  • Relative speed: add if opposite.
  • Basis for trains and boats logic.
REASONING

Direction Sense

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Navigation

  • Based on 4 main & 4 cardinal points.
  • Always assume North is 'Up' on paper.
  • Use Pythagoras for shortest distance.
  • Sun rises in East, shadow in West.
  • Clockwise vs Anti-clockwise turns.
REASONING

Seating Arrangement

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Placement

  • Linear or Circular arrangements.
  • Facing Center vs Facing Outward.
  • Left/Right depends on facing side.
  • Use 'fixed' information first.
  • Eliminate impossible possibilities.
REASONING

Calendars

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Dates & Days

  • Concept of 'Odd Days' is key.
  • Normal Year = 365 days (1 odd day).
  • Leap Year = 366 days (2 odd days).
  • Century years must divide by 400.
  • Day repeats after every 7 days.
REASONING

Clock Logic

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Angles of Time

  • Hour hand moves 0.5° per minute.
  • Minute hand moves 6° per minute.
  • Formula for Angle: |30H - 112M|
  • Hands coincide once every hour.
  • Right angle (90°) twice every hour.
ENGLISH

Narration

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Speech Types

  • Direct: Exact words of speaker.
  • Indirect: Reported words of speaker.
  • Rules of Change:
    1. Tense shift (Present to Past)
    2. Pronoun changes (I to He/She)
    3. Time change (Today to That day)
  • Essential for formal reporting.
ENGLISH

Prepositions

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Connectors

  • Shows relation between noun/verb.
  • 'In' vs 'At' for locations.
  • 'Between' (2) vs 'Among' (3+).
  • Fixed prepositions (e.g., Afraid of).
  • Crucial for sentence meaning.
ENGLISH

Conjunctions

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Linking Words

  • Connects words, phrases or clauses.
  • Coordinating: AND, BUT, OR.
  • Correlative: EITHER-OR, NEITHER-NOR.
  • Subordinating: BECAUSE, ALTHOUGH.
  • Creates complex sentence structures.
ENGLISH

Articles

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Determiners

  • A, An: Indefinite articles.
  • The: Definite article.
  • 'An' used with vowel sounds.
  • 'The' used for specific/unique items.
  • Omission of articles in some cases.
HISTORY

Vedic Period

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Ancient Culture

  • Era of the four sacred Vedas.
  • Rigveda: Oldest religious text.
  • Shift from pastoral to agriculture.
  • Iron discovery in Later Vedic age.
  • Caste system became hereditary.
HISTORY

Gupta Empire

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Golden Age

  • Era of great art and science.
  • Chandragupta I: First major king.
  • Samudragupta: Napoleon of India.
  • Aryabhata discovered Zero/Decimals.
  • Famous Ajanta cave paintings.
HISTORY

Delhi Sultanate

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Medieval Rule

  • Slave, Khilji, Tughlaq, Lodi.
  • Qutub Minar construction started.
  • Introduction of the Iqta system.
  • Alauddin's market control policy.
  • Ibn Battuta visited during this era.
HISTORY

1857 Revolt

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Sepoy Mutiny

  • First major anti-British war.
  • Started in Meerut/Barrackpore.
  • Mangal Pandey was the hero.
  • End of East India Company rule.
  • British Crown took direct control.
GEOGRAPHY

Latitude-Longitude

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Grid System

  • Latitude: Horizontal (Equator).
  • Longitude: Vertical (Prime Meridian).
  • Used for locating places on Earth.
  • 1° Longitude = 4 minutes time.
  • IST is based on 82.5° E longitude.
GEOGRAPHY

Indian Soils

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Land Types

  • Alluvial: Most fertile, in plains.
  • Black (Regur): Best for Cotton.
  • Red Soil: High in Iron content.
  • Laterite: Best for Cashew/Coffee.
  • Arid: Sandy, found in Rajasthan.
GEOGRAPHY

Major Mountains

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Global Peaks

  • Himalayas: Young fold mountains.
  • Andes: Longest range (S. America).
  • Rockies: Found in North America.
  • Urals: Divide Europe and Asia.
  • Aravallis: Oldest range in India.
GEOGRAPHY

Ocean Currents

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Marine Flow

  • Streams of water in the ocean.
  • Warm currents: From Equator to Pole.
  • Cold currents: From Pole to Equator.
  • Guld Stream: Famous warm current.
  • Affects climate of coastal regions.
POLITY

DPSP

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State Directives

  • Part IV: Articles 36 to 51.
  • Guidelines for making laws.
  • Non-justiciable (cannot go to court).
  • Aims for a Welfare State.
  • Borrowed from Irish Constitution.
POLITY

Fundamental Duties

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Citizen Responsibilities

  • Part IV-A: Article 51A.
  • Added by 42nd Amendment 1976.
  • Recommended by Swaran Singh Comm.
  • Originally 10, now 11 duties.
  • Respecting Flag and Anthem is key.
POLITY

Supreme Court

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Highest Judiciary

  • Guardian of the Constitution.
  • Appoints Judges via Collegium.
  • Power of Judicial Review.
  • Article 143: Advisory to President.
  • Final interpreter of central laws.
POLITY

Emergency

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Special Provisions

  • Part XVIII of the Constitution.
  • Art 352: National Emergency.
  • Art 356: President's Rule.
  • Art 360: Financial Emergency.
  • Powers shift from State to Center.
ECONOMICS

5 Year Plans

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Planning Era

  • Started in 1951 (Harrod-Domar).
  • 2nd Plan: Mahalanobis (Industry).
  • Objective: Self-reliance & Growth.
  • Last plan ended in 2017.
  • Replaced by NITI 15-year vision.
ECONOMICS

Union Budget

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Annual Statement

  • Art 112: Annual Financial Statement.
  • Presented by Finance Minister.
  • Contains Revenue & Capital parts.
  • Defines tax slabs for the year.
  • Fiscal Deficit is a key focus.
ECONOMICS

Stock Market

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Capital Market

  • SEBI: The market regulator.
  • NSE (Nifty) & BSE (Sensex).
  • Shares, Bonds, and Mutual Funds.
  • Bull market means prices rising.
  • Bear market means prices falling.
ECONOMICS

National Income

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Economy Measurement

  • NNP at factor cost is the real NI.
  • Formula: GNP - Depreciation.
  • Includes income from abroad.
  • Used to calculate Per Capita Income.
  • Reflects standard of living.
ENVIRONMENT

Renewable Energy

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Clean Power

  • Energy from natural sources.
  • Solar, Wind, Hydro, and Biomass.
  • Infinite supply, low carbon footprint.
  • India's target: 500GW by 2030.
  • Reduces reliance on fossil fuels.
ENVIRONMENT

Pollution Types

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Contamination

  • Air: Smog, CO2, SO2 gases.
  • Water: Industrial waste & sewage.
  • Soil: Excessive chemical fertilizers.
  • Noise: High decibels from traffic.
  • Leads to global health issues.
ENVIRONMENT

Wildlife Act

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Protection 1972

  • Legal frame for animal protection.
  • Prohibits hunting of endangered ones.
  • Created 6 different Schedules.
  • Establishment of National Parks.
  • Powers to declare 'Vermins'.
ENVIRONMENT

Ecosystem

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Biotic & Abiotic

  • Interaction of life and nature.
  • Biotic: Animals, plants, bacteria.
  • Abiotic: Air, water, soil, light.
  • Terrestrial (Forest) vs Aquatic (Sea).
  • Delicate balance of nutrients.
SCIENCE

Periodic Table

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Chemistry Layout

  • Organized by Atomic Number.
  • Periods (Rows) & Groups (Columns).
  • Noble gases in the 18th group.
  • Metals on left, non-metals on right.
  • Mendeleev was the pioneer.
SCIENCE

Light Physics

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Reflection

  • Light bounces off smooth surfaces.
  • Refraction: Bending in different media.
  • Speed of light: 3 × 108 m/s.
  • White light consists of 7 colors.
  • Fiber optics uses total internal reflection.
SCIENCE

Human Brain

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Control Center

  • Cerebrum: Memory and Logic.
  • Cerebellum: Balance & Posture.
  • Medulla: Involuntary actions (Heart).
  • Hypothalamus: Hunger and Thirst.
  • Encased in the protective skull.
SCIENCE

Digestion

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Food Processing

  • Starts in the mouth with Saliva.
  • Stomach uses HCl to kill bacteria.
  • Small Intestine: Nutrient absorption.
  • Liver produces Bile for fats.
  • Large Intestine: Water absorption.
STATIC GK

International Organizations

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Global Bodies

  • UN: Peace and Security (NY).
  • WHO: Global Health (Geneva).
  • World Bank: Economic Loans (DC).
  • UNESCO: Culture & Heritage (Paris).
  • IMF: Financial stability (DC).
STATIC GK

World Rivers

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Global Waters

  • Nile: Longest in the world (Africa).
  • Amazon: Largest volume (S. America).
  • Yangtze: Longest in Asia (China).
  • Danube: Famous European river.
  • Mississippi: Major North American river.
STATIC GK

First in India

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Personalities

  • PM: Jawaharlal Nehru.
  • President: Rajendra Prasad.
  • Nobel Prize: Rabindranath Tagore.
  • Woman PM: Indira Gandhi.
  • Mount Everest: Bachendri Pal.
STATIC GK

Holy Temples

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Indian Heritage

  • Jagannath: Famous Puri Rath Yatra.
  • Meenakshi: Madurai Architecture.
  • Konark: The Great Sun Temple.
  • Somnath: Historical Shiva Temple.
  • Golden Temple: Sikh Holy Shrine.
MATHS

Number System

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Classification

  • Real Numbers: Rational and Irrational.
  • Prime Numbers: Only 2 factors (1 and itself).
  • Divisibility rules help in quick calculation.
  • Unit digit concept relies on cyclicity.
  • Remainder Theorem simplifies large divisions.
MATHS

HCF & LCM

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Common Factors

  • HCF: Highest Common Factor of numbers.
  • LCM: Least Common Multiple of numbers.
  • Formula: Product of 2 Numbers = HCF × LCM
  • Used to solve bell tolling and circular track puzzles.
  • HCF of fractions = HCF of NumeratorsLCM of Denominators
MATHS

Mixture & Alligation

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Weighted Average

  • Rule to find ratio of ingredients.
  • Alligation is a graphical shortcut method.
  • Formula: Cheaper QtyDearer Qty = Dearer Price - Mean PriceMean Price - Cheaper Price
  • Applied to mixtures, interest, and average speed.
  • Solves replacement of liquid problems.
MATHS

Mensuration

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Area & Volume

  • 2D shapes: Focus on Area and Perimeter.
  • 3D shapes: Focus on Volume and Surface Area.
  • Circle Area = πr2 Circumference = 2πr
  • Sphere Volume = 43πr3
  • Core section for competitive spatial math.
REASONING

Analogy

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Relationships

  • Finding similar relations between pairs.
  • Types: Semantic, Symbolic, and Number.
  • Example: Doctor : Hospital :: Teacher : School.
  • Requires strong GK and vocabulary.
  • Tests rapid association skills.
REASONING

Venn Diagrams

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Set Relations

  • Represents logical relations using circles.
  • Overlapping areas show common traits.
  • Used to verify class relationships.
  • Helps solve complex syllogisms visually.
  • Tests spatial and grouping logic.
REASONING

Non-Verbal

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Visual Patterns

  • Deals with shapes, figures, and patterns.
  • Includes mirror images and water images.
  • Paper folding and cutting techniques.
  • Identify next figure in series.
  • Tests spatial visualization without text.
REASONING

Assumptions

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Logical Premises

  • Identify unstated premises in statements.
  • An assumption is always taken to be true.
  • Avoid assumptions that go beyond context.
  • Look for words like 'only', 'all', or 'always'.
  • Tests critical reading and reasoning.
ENGLISH

Synonyms & Antonyms

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Word Meaning

  • Synonyms: Words with similar meanings.
  • Antonyms: Words with opposite meanings.
  • Context determines the best fit word.
  • Root words assist in guessing meanings.
  • Essential for building writing vocabulary.
ENGLISH

One Word Substitution

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Concise Terms

  • Replacing a phrase with a single word.
  • Example: 'One who is present everywhere' = Omnipresent.
  • Reduces wordiness in sentences.
  • Saves reading time and improves style.
  • Commonly asked in competitive exams.
ENGLISH

Reading Comprehension

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Understanding Text

  • Reading passage to answer direct queries.
  • Identify the main theme and tone.
  • Skim for overview, scan for specifics.
  • Inference questions require logical reasoning.
  • Tests comprehension and reading speed.
ENGLISH

Pronoun Rules

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Substitutes

  • Replaces nouns to prevent repetition.
  • Subjective (I, He) vs Objective (Me, Him).
  • Relative pronouns: Who, Whom, Which, That.
  • Pronoun must agree with its antecedent.
  • Order of pronouns: 231 (Positive), 123 (Negative).
HISTORY

Buddhism/Jainism

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Heterodox Sects

  • Arose as reform movements in 6th Century BC.
  • Buddhism: Founded by Gautama Buddha (Eightfold Path).
  • Jainism: Promoted by Vardhamana Mahavira (Triratnas).
  • Rejected caste supremacy and Vedic rituals.
  • Patronized by major ancient kings.
HISTORY

Maratha Empire

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Deccan Power

  • Founded by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj in 1674.
  • Known for guerrilla warfare tactics (Ganimi Kava).
  • Ashtapradhan: Shivaji's cabinet of 8 ministers.
  • Peshwa rule expanded authority across North India.
  • Weakened after Third Battle of Panipat (1761).
HISTORY

Governor Generals

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British Rule

  • Warren Hastings: First Governor-General of Bengal.
  • William Bentinck: Abolished Sati system (1829).
  • Dalhousie: Introduced Doctrine of Lapse and Railways.
  • Canning: First Viceroy of India after 1857.
  • Represented the shift from trade to empire.
HISTORY

The INC

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National Congress

  • Founded in Dec 1885 by A.O. Hume.
  • First session in Bombay, led by W.C. Bonnerjee.
  • Moderate phase (1885-1905): Petitions and prayers.
  • Extremist phase: Lal-Bal-Pal & Swadeshi Movement.
  • Provided the main political platform for freedom.
GEOGRAPHY

Climate of India

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Monsoons

  • Mainly tropical monsoon type climate.
  • South-West Monsoon brings maximum rainfall.
  • North-East Monsoon waters Tamil Nadu coast.
  • Western disturbances bring winter rain to North.
  • Influenced heavily by Himalayas and Indian Ocean.
GEOGRAPHY

Natural Vegetation

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Forest Types

  • Tropical Evergreen: High rain, dense canopy.
  • Tropical Deciduous: Most widespread (shed leaves).
  • Montane Forests: Found in high altitude zones.
  • Mangroves: Survive in salty coastal waters.
  • Forests regulate climate and preserve soil.
GEOGRAPHY

Biosphere Reserves

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Conservation

  • Large areas of protected land for biodiversity.
  • Includes Core, Buffer, and Transition zones.
  • First in India: Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
  • Part of UNESCO's Man and Biosphere (MAB).
  • Aims to balance preservation with local livelihoods.
GEOGRAPHY

Rock Types

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Lithosphere

  • Igneous: Formed by cooling of molten magma.
  • Sedimentary: Formed by deposition of sediments.
  • Metamorphic: Altered by high heat and pressure.
  • Rock cycle shows transformation of one to another.
  • Crucial for soil mineral content.
POLITY

Parliament

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Union Legislature

  • Consists of President, Lok Sabha, and Rajya Sabha.
  • Lok Sabha: Lower House (directly elected).
  • Rajya Sabha: Upper House (permanent chamber).
  • Speaker conducts Lok Sabha proceedings.
  • Passes bills to make statutory laws.
POLITY

The Governor

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State Executive

  • Constitutional head of a State.
  • Appointed by the President of India.
  • Art 153 to 162 govern office.
  • Holds office during pleasure of President.
  • Acts as vital link between Center and State.
POLITY

Constitutional Bodies

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Authority

  • Established directly by the Constitution.
  • Examples: Election Commission (Art 324), CAG (Art 148).
  • UPSC (Art 315) conducts civil services exams.
  • Finance Commission (Art 280) handles revenue.
  • Independent of direct executive control.
POLITY

Amendments

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Article 368

  • Power of Parliament to amend Constitution.
  • Requires Special Majority in both houses.
  • Basic Structure cannot be destroyed.
  • 42nd Amendment: "Mini-Constitution".
  • Keeps the document adaptable to modern times.
ECONOMICS

Banking System

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Financial System

  • Commercial Banks: Public, Private, and Foreign.
  • CRR & SLR: Mandatory reserves with RBI.
  • Repo Rate: Rate at which RBI lends to banks.
  • NPAs (Non-Performing Assets): Bad loans.
  • Provides liquidity to power economic growth.
ECONOMICS

Monetary vs Fiscal Policy

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Policy Tools

  • Monetary Policy: Managed by RBI (Rates & Money supply).
  • Fiscal Policy: Managed by Govt (Taxation & Spending).
  • Both aim to balance growth and inflation.
  • Monetary responds faster to economic changes.
  • Fiscal targets long-term structural changes.
ECONOMICS

Sectors of Economy

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Structure

  • Primary: Agriculture and raw extraction.
  • Secondary: Manufacturing and construction.
  • Tertiary: Services (IT, Banking, Tourism).
  • Quaternary: Research and high-tech development.
  • Shows transition of a developing nation.
ECONOMICS

GST & Taxes

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Revenue

  • Direct Taxes: Paid directly by individual (Income tax).
  • Indirect Taxes: Passed on to consumer (GST).
  • GST: One Nation One Tax (July 1, 2017).
  • GST Council (Art 279A) decides tax rates.
  • Broadens tax base and reduces tax cascading.
ENVIRONMENT

Global Warming

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Heating Up

  • Rise in average temperature of Earth.
  • Main Greenhouse Gases: CO2, CH4, N2O, Water vapor.
  • Traps outgoing thermal infrared radiation.
  • Leads to rising sea levels & habitat loss.
  • Mitigated by reducing carbon footprint.
ENVIRONMENT

Ramsar Sites

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Wetlands

  • Ramsar Convention signed in Iran (1971).
  • Aims to conserve wetlands of global value.
  • Wetlands act as "Kidneys of Landscape".
  • Filters water and controls floods.
  • Montreux Record: List of threatened sites.
ENVIRONMENT

Protocols

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Global Treaties

  • Kyoto Protocol (1997): Reduce greenhouse gases.
  • Nagoya Protocol: Access to genetic resources.
  • Cartagena Protocol: Biosafety rules.
  • Paris Agreement (2015): Limit heating below 2°C.
  • Key milestones in international eco-policy.
ENVIRONMENT

Acid Rain

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Chemical Rain

  • Occurs when rain mixes with pollutants.
  • Main culprits: SO2 and NOx gases.
  • Forms Sulfuric and Nitric acids in clouds.
  • Damages soil, aquatic life, and monuments.
  • Corrodes historical buildings (e.g., Taj Mahal).
SCIENCE

Sound Waves

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Acoustics

  • Mechanical, longitudinal compression waves.
  • Requires a material medium to travel.
  • Speed is fastest in solids, slowest in gases.
  • Human hearing range: 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
  • Infrasonic (<20Hz) vs Ultrasonic (>20kHz).
SCIENCE

Human Diseases

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Pathology

  • Viral: Influenza, Dengue, COVID-19.
  • Bacterial: Tuberculosis, Cholera, Typhoid.
  • Protozoan: Malaria (caused by Plasmodium).
  • Fungal: Ringworm and Athlete's foot.
  • Vaccines help build immunity.
SCIENCE

Acids & Bases

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pH Chemistry

  • Acids: Taste sour, turn blue litmus red (pH < 7).
  • Bases: Taste bitter, turn red litmus blue (pH > 7).
  • Neutralization: Acid + Base → Salt + Water.
  • Strong acids ionize fully in water.
  • pH scale runs from 0 to 14.
SCIENCE

Atomic Structure

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Matter Units

  • Protons (+ve) and Neutrons (0) in nucleus.
  • Electrons (-ve) orbit around nucleus.
  • Atomic Number = Number of Protons.
  • Mass Number = Protons + Neutrons.
  • Isotopes: Same atomic number, different mass.
STATIC GK

Folk Dances

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Folk Culture

  • Bhangra & Giddha: Punjab traditions.
  • Garba & Dandiya: Gujarat festive dances.
  • Ghoomar & Kalbelia: Rajasthan heritage.
  • Bihu: Assam's famous harvest dance.
  • Reflects local history and harvest cycles.
STATIC GK

Major Lakes

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Inland Waters

  • Wular Lake: Largest freshwater lake (J&K).
  • Chilika Lake: Largest brackish water lagoon.
  • Vembanad: Longest lake in India (Kerala).
  • Loktak Lake: Famous for floating phumdis (Manipur).
  • Crucial for local ecotourism and fishing.
STATIC GK

Sports & Trophies

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Athletics

  • Ranji Trophy & IPL: Cricket tournaments.
  • Santosh Trophy & Durand Cup: Football.
  • Thomas Cup (Men) & Uber Cup (Women): Badminton.
  • Grand Slams: 4 major tennis events.
  • Olympics: Held once every four years.
STATIC GK

Space Missions

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ISRO

  • Formed on 15th August 1969 by Vikram Sarabhai.
  • Aryabhata: India's first satellite (1975).
  • Chandrayaan: Lunar exploration program.
  • Mangalyaan: Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM).
  • Gaganyaan: Planned human spaceflight mission.
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